Why is it important for educators to understand how to interpret test Assignment

For what reason is it significant for instructors to see how to decipher test scores - Assignment Example Through this target and quantifiable evaluation, instructors can then gadget powerful strategies for mediation to improve the student’s execution and afterward retested again to check whether the intercession was successful. Deciphering test scores will likewise give educator’s the extraordinary understanding and capacity to survey the adequacy of their own showing strategy whether it has accomplished its objective by looking at the genuine scores of its target group to the their goal. It will likewise permit them to assess if the instruments they use for showing fill its need. This knowledge which grade understanding gives empower educator’s to address any distinguished any shortcoming both in their showing strategy and educational programs and gives them the chance to improve. Hence, it will be it significant for instructors to see how to decipher test scores not exclusively to rank or evaluation understudies, yet more critically, decide whether their techniques, apparatuses and their selves are powerful as teachers and that their devices and strategies effectively educate their

Piaget and early childhood

Support Excelsior College Even however Jean Paging spent more than thirty years back his work is still found in the homeroom today. There are three instructive rules that are gotten from Piglet's hypothesis that keep on majorly affecting both instructor preparing and homeroom rehearses, especially during youth. Revelation learning, affectability to kids' preparation to learn and acknowledgment of individual contrasts are the three instructive rules that are as yet affecting the instructive climate (Beer, 2010).Discovery learning urges kids to learn through disclosure by unconstrained connection with the earth. Instructors place things in their study hall that understudies can use for investigation and revelation. Youngsters can investigate workmanship supplies, estimating apparatuses, puzzles, table games, building squares, and so forth. To improve learning. Educators don't promptly introduce verbal information in this setting however empower revelation by these material methods (Bee r, 2010). Affectability to youngsters' preparation to take in is another guideline gotten from Page's theory.In this condition instructors present exercises that expand on kids' present reasoning, testing their erroneous methods of survey the world and empowering them to rehearse newfound subjects. Be that as it may if the kid doesn't not show intrigue or status the instructors won't train them until they show intrigue or preparation. In conclusion acknowledgment of individual contrasts, offers trustworthiness to Piglet's hypothesis that kids experience similar phases of advancement, they Just do it at various rates. Hence educators must arrangement exercises for little gatherings and not the entire class.Evaluations must be identified with the kid's past improvement instead of a normal dependent on regularizing gauges or identified with peers in a similar age gathering. This takes into account learning custom fitted to singular contrasts (Beer, 2010). Despite the fact that there ar e three primary standards of Piglet's hypothesis despite everything found in the study hall today, her likewise guessed that there are impediments to youth thinking. As indicated by Jean Pigged, egocentrics, preservation, focus and reversibility and the absence of various leveled arrangement, are impediments to youth thinking.These restrictions are angles in the operational phase of his psychological advancement hypothesis (Beer, 2010). Egocentrics, manages youngsters' capacity to see things structure another's perspective. Pigged directed a three mountains issue, in which a doll was set behind three particular mountains with the bigger one confronting the doll and the littler ones confronting the youngster. When requested to recognize an image from the doll's perspective they would just picked the image that spoke to what they saw from their place of view.Conservation is clarified as physical qualities of items continuing as before in any event, when their outward appearances chang e. In an exhibit a youngster is demonstrated two glasses with equivalent measures of fluid. The kid recognizes that the two glasses have a similar volume of fluid. He at that point pours the fluid of one glass into a taller glass. Kids on the operational period of reasoning will say that the glass that is taller has increasingly fluid despite the fact that they didn't perceive any extra fluid poured to build volume or any fluid expelled to diminish volume.This task additionally clarifies two different parts of his hypothesis, fixation and reversibility. In this examination the youngsters center, or focus on the stature of the glass. They don't process the way that the adjustments in stature and width are what cause the fluid to seem taller. This is the reason behind focus. Irreversibility is likewise influencing everything here. The kids can't turn around the procedure and believe that on the off chance that she pours the taller glass of fluid go into a similar glass it was spilled out of it would take on the first shape from the first glass..

Involvement in Your Residence Hall

Involvement in Your Residence Hall Its not everyday that you go to a new place and find such extraordinary connections with people immediately. Last year, I arrived on campus to move in to my new residence hall, Snyder Hall. I chose Snyder Hall specifically for its strict substance-free policy and was excited to live in a community that encouraged my lifestyle and choices. During the check-in process at Snyder, I was confronted with a table that displayed sign-ups for Hall Council. This seemed like an excellent opportunity to become involved in something that would directly contribute to my community and allow me to connect with my fellow residents. I would go on to be the secretary on Snyder Hall Council and love every second of it. Every meeting was filled with planning for spectacular events like Dial-A-Carol (more on that later this year) and Snyderpalooza (our in-hall alternative to unofficial). The best part about all of this is that I got to become close with some very cool people from diverse backgrounds. I can now safely say that these people have not only impacted my college experience but the way that I view community. Hall Council simply gave me connections that are irreplaceable for any freshman in college. Later that fall, I decided that I loved my experience on Snyder Hall Council so much that I was going to apply to become an RA. Fast forward almost a year, and I am now an RA at the greatest residence hall on the planet, Snyder Hall. As I start this school year, I look forward to being a resource and advocate for each of my residents in order to help them succeed in everything they are attempting. Additionally, my connections with my fellow staff are now providing me with such an amazing sense of community. Looking back on the last year, the best decision I have made on campus was signing up for Hall Council. I highly encourage anyone who wants to meet and connect with many new people and work together on amazing events for the community to sign up for Hall Council. I promise that anyone who does this will never be disappointed in the outcome. Jacob Class of 2019 I’m an Advertising student within the College of Media. My hometown is a place called Fairmount, Illinois, which is about 30 minutes from campus. I began my Illinois journey in the Division of General Studies.

How do You know Essay - 957 Words

I walk down the school hallway or the streets, and see couples holding hands or giving each other kisses on the cheek. A sickened look captures my face as I walk by and hear those three words, â€Å"I Love you†. Then it dawns on me, do they really love each other? Do they understand what they are saying? If it isn’t love what do they have? Many people question the difference between love and lust, and if they are able to have both. In my opinion, it is possible that love can turn into a passionate relationship and the sexual tension between two partners can eventually turn into love. However, there is no guarantee that one will generate the other. Lust means to have an intense desire or sexual need towards someone. It is just a mere†¦show more content†¦It is proven in this literary work that when having that sexual tension between another person, and getting passed what drew you near them in the first place, the two beings can eventually fall in love. On the other hand, there are being that are able to fall in love and confide in each other without being sexually attracted. This type of union is considered very genuine and unadulterated. In William Shakespeare’s, Sonnet 116, love is characterized in its most ideal form. The sonnet is congratulating lovers who have come to each other freely. The first four lines identifies the Shakespeare’s admiration for how love is stable and â€Å"wil l not alter when alterations finds† (Shakespeare 345). In the fifth line, he speaks about love being a guiding star to lost ships (wandering barks). The love theme of this sonnet expresses love in a positive way. When love comes first there is some other force that attracts them, which is not the desire of intercourse. In â€Å"Plato: The Perfect Union†, it is revealed that people long to find that person to become whole with. For example, â€Å"To Plato lovers are incomplete halves of single puzzle, searching for each other in order to become whole.† (Ackerman 877). It describes soul mates as being the true definition of romantic love. Specifically it says to â€Å"Bridle sexual urges† and â€Å"set higher goals†. Implicating that romantic love does not need flourish with just sex alone. â€Å"The Passionate Shepherd to His Love† was about a man whoShow MoreRelatedDo You Know How You Survive? Essay2141 Words   |  9 PagesDo you know h ow to survive? Have you ever thought what the world would be like if there was no technology guiding us? Wonder a world would be like if not everyone had cars? Ever Wonder a world where any race besides white got beaten for saying anything? Imagine a world where not everyone had resources accessible to them for survival, technology to keep alive, or even awareness of certain diseases and ways to cure them. That was the life of people that lived in the era of the 1960s, where blacks didRead MoreSymptoms And Treatment Of Depression Essay2726 Words   |  11 Pages though they may feel awkward and shy discussing the problem. And it does take courage to speak up, trust me-I know because I suffer from this condition and it took me quite awhile to get the nerve to speak to my doctor. But, talking with a regular doctor about depression really may not take care of the problem in the best way. Sure, the doctor will likely write a prescription for you, but with so many depression medications on the market it can be difficult to find the right one for each person-andRead MoreThe Day Of The Room1335 Words   |  6 PagesWow. Just wow. If Alina’s quarters indicated how they treated the Fair One then being the Fair One was good. Both her and her mom’s jaws collectively dropped as they soaked in the beauty that lay before them. It looked straight out of Architectural Died-and-gone-to-heaven-gest. To the left, a cool white kitchen with a swanky breakfast bar and pendant lights. Her mom appeared ready to drool. To the right, a gorgeous great room in whites, creams and browns. A plush beige sectional and chairs centeredRead MoreChapter 1 Essay711 Words   |  3 PagesLet’s take a look.’ Gilt spread out the painting on the table so that everyone could see. It’s very good. Her perspective is almost spot on. She added shade here, and here, to get a great deal of depth to the sea and shoreline. ï » ¿Doctor Pax asked, Do you think this place is real? Mosaic pointed his finger at the cliffs. It looks like the coast near Chauntsinger. Is that a shepherd’s hut on the hillside? Mole shook his head. No, I would say its a sea defence. A pillbox.’ ‘Erm...?’ ‘Yes, HarmonieRead MoreUnderstanding Schizophreni How Do You Know?870 Words   |  4 Pagesdelusions, social isolation, as well as intense suspicion or agitation, each of which contributed to the previous subtypes of schizophrenia. Today, individuals with schizophrenia are assessed severity of symptoms rather than by classification. How Do You Know Yesterday?s View and Today?s Knowledge Research has shown that one of the main factors of schizophrenia is genetics. Despite the fact that there has been no specific gene linked to the cause of schizophrenia, there is a gene related to theRead MoreWhile the Auto Waits1915 Words   |  8 Pagesin the way of expression. You may sit down, if you like, she said, in a full, deliberate contralto. Really, I would like to have you do so. The light is too bad for reading. I would prefer to talk. The vassal of Luck slid upon the seat by her side with complaisance. Do you know, be said, speaking the formula with which park chairmen open their meetings, that you are quite the stunningest girl I have seen in a long time? I had my eye on you yesterday. Didnt know somebody was bowled over byRead MoreHow Well Do You Know Me?1004 Words   |  5 Pages+ $500, 000 + $200, 000 $2, 700, 000 2. How high was the inï ¬â€šation rate between 2007 and 2008, based on the GDP deï ¬â€šator, and based on the CPI? Answer: Based on the GDP deï ¬â€šator, the inï ¬â€šation rate between 2007 and 2008 would be 7.3%, based on the CPI it is 7.8%. 3. Consider the following events: Mr. Jordan buys for himself a hundred year old Victorian house for $US 10 million, and Mr. O’Neal builds for himself a brand-new villa for $US 15 million. How much do these events together add to current GDPRead MoreUnderstanding Schizophreni How Do You Know?1916 Words   |  8 Pagesassessed severity of symptoms rather than by classification. How Do You Know Cain was a typical law student making his mark on the world. At twenty-four years old he was in his final year of law school, if he finished out his final stretch perfect there were already offers waiting for him. That was until Cain?s friends began to notice a change in him; over the course of the school year Cain began to change into someone they did not know. It began with Cain being a little more anxious than normal,Read MoreDo You Know How Mindfulness Can Help You?781 Words   |  4 PagesDo You Know How Mindfulness Can Help You? By Liz Kearns | Submitted On January 27, 2011 Recommend Article Article Comments Print Article Share this article on Facebook Share this article on Twitter Share this article on Google+ Share this article on Linkedin Share this article on StumbleUpon Share this article on Delicious Share this article on Digg Share this article on Reddit Share this article on Pinterest Expert Author Liz Kearns Mindfulness is a simple idea. Its power arises from itsRead MoreHow Do You Know You ve Witnessed A Murder?1410 Words   |  6 PagesHow Do You Know You’ve Witnessed a Murder? This question is a perplexing one, and will be explored throughout the following text. However, first a person must consider the value of a films translation of text into cinematic language. â€Å"A movie based on a literary source is often seen as a secondary work, consequently, of secondary value† (Cahir). What makes this ideology present in our society? What makes one translation considered more valuable than another? â€Å"Literature, generally, still occupies

We Live In A Society Where The Police Are Not Seen As The

We live in a society where the police are not seen as the good guy. People have a hard time believing they are safe with a policeman. Over the year’s things has changed for the public. Our technology is better and more connected with other people. Many videos of police over using their power are able to circulate over social media and the web. People are seeing many bad views on police than good. Which lead society hard to trust the people who protect and service us. Police misusing power leads to the debate of the constitutional law and amendments. Incidents like police handling their victims roughly have gone unpublished before better technology. Lawfulness and legitimacy plays a role in a police line of work, yet, society has changed†¦show more content†¦Due to the likely of the children to get shot or mistaken as a criminal with a weapon. There has been injustice death for those that did not live through a come across from an authority. Violations of arrest have happened where one’s rights are not respected or given. For this reason, many tend to consider the procedural justice than the outcome. Social interaction between the police and citizens are necessary and critical. If the community does not feel that their group of people do not matter to police this will create a deterrence. But, if the interaction between both succeed this can lead to compliance and understanding for an easier outcome for both sides. For example, gun offenders and other criminals feel lack of respect from officers. The smallest error one policeman can make can leave a harsh impression on all authority. In the same way, there can be stereotype for authority due to having the law to assist them to do illegal actions. This assisting them to getting away as much as they desire, which most of society believes. Peel s second principle of the nine implies the ability of the police to perform their duties is dependent upon public approval of police actions. This entitles that police are to maintain respect to keep the public respect and well being. So, why do those who encounter the police care for procedural justice? It is normal everyday life for one feel respect and as an equal. TheShow MoreRelatedAfrican Americans Have Been Victims Of Racist And Discriminatory1533 Words   |  7 Pagesattention of the public by the media in scenarios of police brutality and unequal practices toward minority individuals; specifically African American men. Rodney King, Malice Green, Tamir Rice, Michael Brown, Freddie Gray, Eric Garner, and Walter Scott are all African American men that died at the hand s of the police. Police brutality can be defined as the use of excessive force, verbal assault, or psychological intimidation by a member of the police force. 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This seems to have created a notion throughout the United States that racism was not an issue for many years. Yet racism still seems to be engrained in American society, it is just hard to realize when it is happening. Recently racial controversies surrounding theRead MoreMarxism Essay1494 Words   |  6 Pagesdebate. It is more important to determine how exactly these common sense reactions are formed. In this essay, I will attempt to analyze law and crime through the lens of Marxist analysis. Common sense tells us that police officers are the good guys attempting to preserve society against the chaos and disorder that the criminals represent. Nobody will agree that this general rule is universally true, as the incidents in the Rampart Division of the LAPD illustrate. 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Its also explain that the ability of living together in harmony is one of lesson learned from Piil. Bali tribe also famous with Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, Tatwam Asi, meaning as â€Å"I is I am and you is you are, even we are differentRead MoreYouth in Crime Essay876 Words   |  4 PagesAppearance, location, and race all deal with how people as well as police authority characterize individuals without truly knowing how that person is. Race is one of the biggest factors when it comes to criminalization because of what people see on the media and from what they are told. It usually is the younger generation that are viewed as criminals not only because of where they live and who they associate themselves with, or with what is seen on the media but also because some young people come from aRead MoreCrime in our society836 Words   |  4 Pagesand therefore more challenging. Criminals are becoming more organised and sophisticated, operating with little regard for national boundaries. What is Crime? 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Segmentation of Mercedes Benz Free Essays

Case 2 Nuclear Energy: Making a Comeback? In the 2010 State of the Union address, the president called for more clean-energy jobs, with expansion of nuclear power as an alternative energy source. He declared, â€Å"To create more of these clean energy jobs, we need more production, more efficiency, more incentives. And that means building a new generation of safe, clean nuclear power plants in this country. We will write a custom essay sample on Segmentation of Mercedes Benz or any similar topic only for you Order Now † Other countries, such as Great Britain, are already planning to build new nuclear plants. Although none have been built in the United States for many years, the 104 currently operating plants generate almost 20 percent of America’s electricity. Wind and solar energy together generate less than 5 percent. An alloy of enriched uranium powers nuclear reactors. How large is the world’s supply of uranium? How long will it last? Uranium, a metal, is relatively common and can be found in rocks and even seawater as well as in ore deposits in the earth. With 24 percent, Australia has the largest supply overall, but Kazakhstan recently declared that it had surpassed Australia’s output. Canada has less than 10 percent of the world’s supply, but has the highest concentration of top-quality ore. Worldwide, about 67,00 tons of uranium are used each year. At current demand, that supply is expected to last about 70 years. The World Nuclear Association (WNA) predicts that nuclear reactor capacity will increase by about 27 percent in the next decade and that the demand for uranium will grow by 33 percent in response. There is some debate about when the demand for uranium will be greater than the supply that can be mined economically. Antinuclear activists point out that mineral resources are nonrenewable. Just as the world will eventually run out of oil and coal, it will also run out of uranium. Some analysts believe that this will happen sooner rather than later. Environmentalists object to destructive mining techniques. In Australia, activists are concerned with the land rights of indigenous Australians. Another potential roadblock is that uranium mining in general is impeded by a lack of infrastructure and a shortage of experienced workers, factors that drive up processing costs. And, a still-unsolved and crucial problem is how to manage safe, long-term storage of spent nuclear rods, which continue to emit radioactivity. The World Nuclear Association disagrees with these assessments. First, not all uranium deposits have been discovered. Since 1975, the number of known deposits has tripled. Advances in geological research and more exploration will detect many more. As mining techniques improve, known deposits that are currently unreachable will become economically accessible. The WNA predicts that at current rates of usage, known supplies will last 200 years rather than 70 or 80. Second, ore deposits are not the only sources of uranium. It is also found in nuclear weapons, available because of various disarmament treaties. The end of the Cold War in the late 1980s also meant the end of the nuclear arms race. Nuclear warheads contain high-quality enriched uranium. Utility companies and governments also have stockpiles of the metal. Third, research is ongoing to make enrichment facilities and reactors more energy efficient. Fourth, unlike oil or coal, uranium can be recycled from spent nuclear fuel rods and from tailings (uranium left over from the enrichment process). These techniques should also improve over time. Other sources, such as phosphates and seawater, could become economically viable in the future. Questions for Critical Thinking 1. What factors do you think will affect the supply and demand curve for nuclear energy? 2. Describe what type of competition you predict will arise in the nuclear energy industry. How to cite Segmentation of Mercedes Benz, Papers

Sentence Completion Test Essay Example For Students

Sentence Completion Test Essay JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT, 74(3), 371–383 Copyright  © 2000, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Sentence Completion Tests: A Review of the Literature and Results of a Survey of Members of the Society for Personality Assessment Margot Holaday, Debra A. Smith, and Alissa Sherry Department of Psychology University of Southern Mississippi Test usage surveys consistently find that sentence completion tests (SCTs) are among the most popular personality assessment instruments used by practitioners. What is not noted is which SCTs practitioners are using, why these tests are so popular, and whether practitioners are using formal scoring. We surveyed a random selection of 100 members of the Society for Personality Assessment. With a 60% return rate on a single mailing, we found that most psychologists who use incomplete sentence tests use the Rotter (1951) Incomplete Sentences Blank with children (18%), adolescents (32%), and adults (47%). Most practitioners said they do not read stems aloud and record answers themselves, and even fewer said they use formal scoring. The most common reasons for using an SCT are (a) to use it as part of an assessment battery (41 endorsements), (b) to determine personality structure (18 endorsements), and (c) to elicit quotable quotes (17 endorsements). Implications for practitioners and training suggestions for academicians who prepare future psychologists are noted. Test usage surveys consistently find that sentence completion tests (SCTs) are among the most commonly used personality assessment instruments. They were ranked second by Japanese clinicians (Ogawa Piotrowski, 1992, as cited in Piotrowski, Keller, Ogawa, 1993), third by clinical psychologists (Goh Fuller, 1983), fifth by clinicians working with adolescents (Archer, Maruish, Imhof, Piotrowski, 1991), fourth by school psychologists (Kennedy, Faust, Willis, Piotrowski, 1994), fifth by representatives of mental health service providers, and third by members of the Society for Personality Assessment in response to the question: â€Å"With what 5 projective tests should the professional practitioner be competent? † (Piotrowski, 1985, p. 81). It is curious that SCTs are referred to as a generic 372 HOLADAY, SMITH, SHERRY classification, yet other personality instruments are ranked in these surveys by name (e. g. , Rorschach or Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 ), not by category (e. g. , inkblot and storytelling technique). Despite the recognized popularity of SCTs, what is not known is which ones practitioners are using, whether they score these instruments according to any theory or guideline, why the tests are so popular, or why they are lumped together as if they all provide the same psychological information. This information is important to academicians who are charged with preparing future psychologists to perform appropriately on their internships and to practitioners who develop their own test batteries to provide the most patient information in the least amount of time. To become familiar with the possible pool of SCT choices, we reviewed the literature and logged the following information about each SCT: name of test; author(s); date first discussed; theory, rationale, or purpose; population for whom it was developed; number of items; subscales, if any; scoring procedures; reliability; validity; and any other relevant information. SCT LITERATURE REVIEW The Tendler Sentence Completion Test (Tendler, 1930) is based on psychodynamic theory; its primary purpose is to help psychologists gain emotional insight into patients’ problems. It has 20 stems and can be given to patients of any age if they can perform the task. The Tendler Sentence Completion Test has no subscales, and scoring procedures are based on the projective hypothesis and clinical judgment. Reliability is not reported. Content validity is claimed through qualitative analysis of patients’ biographical information. According to Tendler, stems are designed to provoke emotional states, such as sadness or happiness, rather than thought processes. All stems are published in the original article. The Sentence Completion Test for the Office of Strategic Services Assessment Program (Murray MacKinnon, 1946; Stein, 1947, 1949) is a free-association method used by the Veterans Administration. It is based on psychodynamic theory with the stated purpose of analyzing brief responses to assess program candidates’ personalities. This instrument was designed for adults and has 100 stems examining family, past experiences, drives, goals, cathexes, energy, time perspective, reaction to others, and others’ reaction to the candidate. According to the authors, the test should be administered in two parts because of its length. Scoring is based on clinical judgment and the projective hypothesis. Helpful techniques for analyzing responses are included in the article. Reliability is not reported. Content validity is based on correlations between the candidate’s personality and the psychologist’s experience, insight, and knowledge of the dynamics of behavior. All stems are published in Stein’s (1947) article. The Incomplete Sentences Blank (Rotter, 1951; Rotter Willerman, 1947) was developed as a screening method to identify maladjusted high school and college SENTENCE COMPLETION TESTS 373 students. Forty-item forms are available for each group with only minor differences between them. There are no subscales. Scoring requires judging responses on content (positive, neutral, or conflict) using three levels of numerical weights. Underlying theory is not mentioned. Reliability coefficients are based on interrater agreement (. 44–. 1) and test–retest scores from 6 months to 3 years (. 38–. 54). Concurrent validity was assessed by correlating obtained scores with level of psychiatric disturbance as judged by clinicians (. 20–. 39) and personality tests such as the MMPI, the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, and the Beck Depression Inventory (Rotter, Lah, Rafferty, 1992). Although the original norm tables were published in 1949, findings from more recent studies are included in the 1992 manual. Means of different samples of college students range from 119. 9 to 148. 5, indicating that local norms must be established to interpret results. The instrument is published by the Psychological Corporation (Rotter et al. , 1992). The Forer Structured Sentence Completion Test (written in 1950; Forer, 1960, 1993) was designed to focus on a wide variety of attitudes and value systems and is based on Henry Murray’s theory of needs, press, and inner states. There are no norms given, but there are forms for adolescent boys or girls and adult men or women. The instrument has 100 items, with four subscales: Interpersonal Figures, Wishes, Causes of Personal Emotions, and Reactions to Emotions. Responses are scored by using a checklist and clinical evaluation form to analyze the subscales on a variety of emotions, drives, and desires. No reliability or validity information is reported in the manual. The test is available through Western Psychological Services (1998). The Sentence Completion Test (Sacks Levy, 1950) was developed to explore specific clusters of attitudes or significant areas of an individual’s life. The theoretical basis or appropriate ages of test takers have not been reported. It is a 60-item instrument with four subscales (Family, Sex, Interpersonal Relationships, and Self-Concepts), each of which is measured on 15 different attitudes, such as fears, guilt, and goals. A rating sheet with the four appropriate stems rearranged under the 15 attitude headings allows a clinician to rate the examinee’s responses on a continuum that ranges from no significant disturbance to severely disturbed. Reported interrater agreement coefficients range from . 48 to . 57 and â€Å"77% of the statements were rated in close agreement with clinical findings† (Sacks Levy, 1950, p. 372). Stems, rating table, and scoring instructions are published in the 1950 article. An adaptation of this test translated into Hebrew was used with children living in a kibbutz (Rabin, 1965). The Miale–Holsopple Sentence Completion Test (Holsopple Miale, 1954) was designed to permit the expression of thoughts and feelings in a nonthreatening manner by adults. According to the authors, the test was not designed to conform to a theory but was a means to â€Å"draw valid inferences concerning unconscious and semiconscious desires, motives, conflicts, and systems of personality organization† (p. 1). There are 73 sentence stems, no subscales, and no formal scoring procedures. 374 HOLADAY, SMITH, SHERRY According to the authors, reliability and validity coefficients for psychological tests are â€Å"illusory,† and sentence completion interpretations should be the responsibility of the examiner. The complete test is published in the authors’ book, Sentence Completi on: A Projective Method for the Study of Personality (Holsopple Miale, 1954; see also Potash, de Fileo Crespo, Patel, Ceravolo, 1990). The Sentence Completion Method (A. R. Rohde, 1946, 1957; B. R. Rohde, 1960), which is based on Murray’s theory of needs, was designed to uncover reactions and needs that lie deeper than those generally acknowledged by the individual. The instrument has 65 items, with no specific subscales. Scoring is based on Murray’s need states and environmental forces (press) with the inner integrates, inner states, and general states that are reproduced in A. R. Rohde’s (1957) book. Scoring examples and norms are reported for ninth-grade students. Interrater reliability was 95% on 36 protocols, and test–retest reliability ranged from . 76 to . 82. Concurrent validation using teacher ratings as the criterion yielded coefficients from . 30 to . 96. All stems and scoring procedures have been published in A. R. Rohde’s (1957) book The Sentence Completion Method. The Peck Sentence Completion (Peck, 1959) is based on psychodynamic theory and principles of free association, and its purpose is to measure the mental health of normal adults. Individuals age 40 or older were participants for a quantitative analysis. Responses to the 41 stems (called attitudes) were rated as positive, negative, or neutral, implying high or low levels of adjustment. A large number of â€Å"unhealthy† responses indicated maladjustment. Interrater agreement ranged from . 53 to . 86. Ten of the 41 statements correctly identified individuals as having high or low adjustment as judged by their responses on the Thematic Apperception Test and interviews. The article in which the Peck Sentence Completion test was reproduced included an interesting commentary about what it meant â€Å"to be a typical, normal American† (Peck, 1959, p. 253) in 1959. The Aronoff Sentence Completion (Aronoff, 1967) was developed to integrate sociology with Maslow’s theory of personality. Aronoff used this instrument to study the underlying needs of adults in a homogeneous cultural group that might have been influential in forming their sociocultural system. There are no norms and no subscales for the 33 sentence stems and the 13 projective questions. Responses are studied to understand how individual needs are related to the culture of a group within the framework of Maslow’s needs. No reliability or validity information is reported. All items and questions are reproduced with scoring examples in Aronoff’s (1967) book, Psychological Needs and Cultural Systems. The Personnel Reaction Blank (Gough, 1971) is based on a theory of antisocial behavior and was designed to measure integrity (character) for the purpose of selecting future employees to fill nonmanagerial positions. Appropriate for applicants over the age of 14, the Personnel Reaction Blank has 90 items, but only 42 are scored. Items are divided into two sections: work preferences and personal reactions. Hand-scoring keys are printed on each page of the test. Reported split-half SENTENCE COMPLETION TESTS 375 reliability is . 73, and test–retest reliability is . 56. Validity coefficients range from . 20 to . 57. The test can be ordered through Consulting Psychologists Press (1998). Loevinger’s Sentence Completion Test of Ego Development (Washington University Sentence Completion; Loevinger, 1987; Loevinger Wessler, 1970; Loevinger, Wessler, Redmore, 1970) is a 36-item test used to measure the level of ego development based on Loevinger’s theory of personality. It is appropriate for individuals ages 12 and older. Separate forms containing only minor differences are available for women and men. Each response is classified as Impulsive, Self-Protective, Conformist, Self-Aware, Conscientious, Individualistic, or Integrative (Hy Loevinger, 1996). Lord Of The Flies - What Evil Lurks In The H EssayThese off-balance, nonsequential probes are what make an open-ended SCT different from a structured (or even unstructured) interview, yet a fourth of the respondents said that one of the reasons they used an SCT was â€Å"as a substitute for a structured interview. † If that is the case, then the stems should represent a sampling of all the questions one would ask in a standard interview, except they would be randomly ordered. However, none of the 15 tests we reviewed contain all the questions usually included in a structured interview. Twenty-four respondents reported that they did not score SCTs administered to children, 27 said they did not score adolescents’ SCTs, and 26 said they did not score tests given to adults. Apparently examiners, relying on their own clinical skills, interpret the content of responses according to their own theoretical orientation. Over a period of years, examiners might become so familiar with typical responses from their client populations that unusual responses stand out. In other words, examiners become their own databases, and they informally establish local norms for their practice. For example, Margot Holaday, who worked with adolescents for 11 years, could argue strongly that the following benign response is highly unusual from 16-year-old males and warrants further examination: â€Å"I like †¦ my mom. † Examiners who rely on clinical skills instead of formal scoring to interpret SCTs should use the same SCT consistently with all clients rather than switching from one to another, so that unusual responses will stand out. The reasons why examiners use SCTs appear to be related to the way the test is administered; that is, whether the client or the therapist reads and writes responses. Practitioners who (a) want to observe behavior, handwriting, or written-language skills; (b) want to keep their client busy while scoring something else; or (c) are conducting research would gain more information if clients worked independently. Only tests completed by the client alone can be accurately scored. On the other hand, if the goal were to determine personality structure, to develop a therapy strategy, or to establish rapport, examiners would be more likely to read stems and record answers themselves. The interaction between the examiner and the examinee becomes another source of information. Practitioners also reported using SCTs to obtain quotable quotes that could lend support to diagnoses in psychological reports, to â€Å"find out what the client wants you to know,† and to discover â€Å"cognitive themes not revealed by other tests. † Many of the stems on the Incomplete Sentence Blank could provide direct information to corroborate diagnoses. For example, â€Å"I feel †¦ like crying† might be linked to depression, dysthymia, or adjustment disorders; â€Å"I regret †¦ nothing† could indicate denial, conduct disorder, or antisocial personality disorder; â€Å"At bedtime †¦ I have trouble sleeping† could reveal posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, anxiety, or insomnia. In other words, SCTs provide unique SENTENCE COMPLETION TESTS 381 information about clients that cannot be obtained by other tests because the open-ended questions permit a wider range of responses than other projective tests or paper-and-pencil personality tests. Limitations of the Study Although 60 members of the Society for Personality Assessment responded to the survey, a second mailing might have encouraged more people to return their questionnaires. We wish we had asked everyone who reported using tests not listed on the survey to send us a copy. People might be using old tests that had been copied and retyped so many times that the original author’s name had been forgotten. It is also possible that practitioners have devised their own tests that contain new stems that permit a wider understanding of client personalities. These new stems or prompts might yield important information that could be shared with other practitioners. Implications for Academic Instructors Students should be exposed to a wide variety of SCTs and should choose ones that comprise stems that are appropriate for their client’s developmental age, psychological functioning, and cultural milieu. Tests developed for college students should not be used with elementary school children or older clients who have been out of school for 30 years or more. In addition, SCTs should be theory based and should contribute substantially to diagnostic accuracy and treatment planning. For example, practitioners whose theoretical orientation is existential would probably gain much information if their SCT included stems that ask about thoughts and feelings about death. A cognitive behaviorist might be more interested in stems that explore clients’ attributional beliefs. A therapist working with minority or disenfranchised groups should include questions relevant to that group’s functioning within a majority society very different from their own. Most SCTs do not have stems asking about spirituality, eating habits, sexuality, illness, anxiety, addictions, prejudice, money, or employment, yet many clients have problems in these areas. Students should be taught how to develop additional items to be added to standard SCTs that are relevant to their practice. Using the same test developed by themselves for many years allows them to become their own databases. It also saves money, because they do not have to purchase copyrighted SCTs. Because most practitioners do not score their SCTs, it does not make sense to spend class time teaching scoring methods. SCTs apparently will remain popular with practitioners, because the tests provide so much information that is valuable for diagnoses, treatment planning, and report writing. Although the Incomplete Sentences Blank is the most popular test reported by members of the Society for Personality Assessment, it is not necessarily the best SCT for all clients. Practitioners may be better served by writing some of their own stems, reading them aloud to their clients, and recording the responses 382 HOLADAY, SMITH, SHERRY themselves. 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Margot Holaday Department of Psychology University of Southern Mississippi Box 5025 Hattiesburg, MS 39406–5025 Received March 4, 1999 Revised April 30, 1999