Sentence Completion Test Essay Example For Students

Sentence Completion Test Essay JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT, 74(3), 371–383 Copyright  © 2000, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Sentence Completion Tests: A Review of the Literature and Results of a Survey of Members of the Society for Personality Assessment Margot Holaday, Debra A. Smith, and Alissa Sherry Department of Psychology University of Southern Mississippi Test usage surveys consistently find that sentence completion tests (SCTs) are among the most popular personality assessment instruments used by practitioners. What is not noted is which SCTs practitioners are using, why these tests are so popular, and whether practitioners are using formal scoring. We surveyed a random selection of 100 members of the Society for Personality Assessment. With a 60% return rate on a single mailing, we found that most psychologists who use incomplete sentence tests use the Rotter (1951) Incomplete Sentences Blank with children (18%), adolescents (32%), and adults (47%). Most practitioners said they do not read stems aloud and record answers themselves, and even fewer said they use formal scoring. The most common reasons for using an SCT are (a) to use it as part of an assessment battery (41 endorsements), (b) to determine personality structure (18 endorsements), and (c) to elicit quotable quotes (17 endorsements). Implications for practitioners and training suggestions for academicians who prepare future psychologists are noted. Test usage surveys consistently find that sentence completion tests (SCTs) are among the most commonly used personality assessment instruments. They were ranked second by Japanese clinicians (Ogawa Piotrowski, 1992, as cited in Piotrowski, Keller, Ogawa, 1993), third by clinical psychologists (Goh Fuller, 1983), fifth by clinicians working with adolescents (Archer, Maruish, Imhof, Piotrowski, 1991), fourth by school psychologists (Kennedy, Faust, Willis, Piotrowski, 1994), fifth by representatives of mental health service providers, and third by members of the Society for Personality Assessment in response to the question: â€Å"With what 5 projective tests should the professional practitioner be competent? † (Piotrowski, 1985, p. 81). It is curious that SCTs are referred to as a generic 372 HOLADAY, SMITH, SHERRY classification, yet other personality instruments are ranked in these surveys by name (e. g. , Rorschach or Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 ), not by category (e. g. , inkblot and storytelling technique). Despite the recognized popularity of SCTs, what is not known is which ones practitioners are using, whether they score these instruments according to any theory or guideline, why the tests are so popular, or why they are lumped together as if they all provide the same psychological information. This information is important to academicians who are charged with preparing future psychologists to perform appropriately on their internships and to practitioners who develop their own test batteries to provide the most patient information in the least amount of time. To become familiar with the possible pool of SCT choices, we reviewed the literature and logged the following information about each SCT: name of test; author(s); date first discussed; theory, rationale, or purpose; population for whom it was developed; number of items; subscales, if any; scoring procedures; reliability; validity; and any other relevant information. SCT LITERATURE REVIEW The Tendler Sentence Completion Test (Tendler, 1930) is based on psychodynamic theory; its primary purpose is to help psychologists gain emotional insight into patients’ problems. It has 20 stems and can be given to patients of any age if they can perform the task. The Tendler Sentence Completion Test has no subscales, and scoring procedures are based on the projective hypothesis and clinical judgment. Reliability is not reported. Content validity is claimed through qualitative analysis of patients’ biographical information. According to Tendler, stems are designed to provoke emotional states, such as sadness or happiness, rather than thought processes. All stems are published in the original article. The Sentence Completion Test for the Office of Strategic Services Assessment Program (Murray MacKinnon, 1946; Stein, 1947, 1949) is a free-association method used by the Veterans Administration. It is based on psychodynamic theory with the stated purpose of analyzing brief responses to assess program candidates’ personalities. This instrument was designed for adults and has 100 stems examining family, past experiences, drives, goals, cathexes, energy, time perspective, reaction to others, and others’ reaction to the candidate. According to the authors, the test should be administered in two parts because of its length. Scoring is based on clinical judgment and the projective hypothesis. Helpful techniques for analyzing responses are included in the article. Reliability is not reported. Content validity is based on correlations between the candidate’s personality and the psychologist’s experience, insight, and knowledge of the dynamics of behavior. All stems are published in Stein’s (1947) article. The Incomplete Sentences Blank (Rotter, 1951; Rotter Willerman, 1947) was developed as a screening method to identify maladjusted high school and college SENTENCE COMPLETION TESTS 373 students. Forty-item forms are available for each group with only minor differences between them. There are no subscales. Scoring requires judging responses on content (positive, neutral, or conflict) using three levels of numerical weights. Underlying theory is not mentioned. Reliability coefficients are based on interrater agreement (. 44–. 1) and test–retest scores from 6 months to 3 years (. 38–. 54). Concurrent validity was assessed by correlating obtained scores with level of psychiatric disturbance as judged by clinicians (. 20–. 39) and personality tests such as the MMPI, the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, and the Beck Depression Inventory (Rotter, Lah, Rafferty, 1992). Although the original norm tables were published in 1949, findings from more recent studies are included in the 1992 manual. Means of different samples of college students range from 119. 9 to 148. 5, indicating that local norms must be established to interpret results. The instrument is published by the Psychological Corporation (Rotter et al. , 1992). The Forer Structured Sentence Completion Test (written in 1950; Forer, 1960, 1993) was designed to focus on a wide variety of attitudes and value systems and is based on Henry Murray’s theory of needs, press, and inner states. There are no norms given, but there are forms for adolescent boys or girls and adult men or women. The instrument has 100 items, with four subscales: Interpersonal Figures, Wishes, Causes of Personal Emotions, and Reactions to Emotions. Responses are scored by using a checklist and clinical evaluation form to analyze the subscales on a variety of emotions, drives, and desires. No reliability or validity information is reported in the manual. The test is available through Western Psychological Services (1998). The Sentence Completion Test (Sacks Levy, 1950) was developed to explore specific clusters of attitudes or significant areas of an individual’s life. The theoretical basis or appropriate ages of test takers have not been reported. It is a 60-item instrument with four subscales (Family, Sex, Interpersonal Relationships, and Self-Concepts), each of which is measured on 15 different attitudes, such as fears, guilt, and goals. A rating sheet with the four appropriate stems rearranged under the 15 attitude headings allows a clinician to rate the examinee’s responses on a continuum that ranges from no significant disturbance to severely disturbed. Reported interrater agreement coefficients range from . 48 to . 57 and â€Å"77% of the statements were rated in close agreement with clinical findings† (Sacks Levy, 1950, p. 372). Stems, rating table, and scoring instructions are published in the 1950 article. An adaptation of this test translated into Hebrew was used with children living in a kibbutz (Rabin, 1965). The Miale–Holsopple Sentence Completion Test (Holsopple Miale, 1954) was designed to permit the expression of thoughts and feelings in a nonthreatening manner by adults. According to the authors, the test was not designed to conform to a theory but was a means to â€Å"draw valid inferences concerning unconscious and semiconscious desires, motives, conflicts, and systems of personality organization† (p. 1). There are 73 sentence stems, no subscales, and no formal scoring procedures. 374 HOLADAY, SMITH, SHERRY According to the authors, reliability and validity coefficients for psychological tests are â€Å"illusory,† and sentence completion interpretations should be the responsibility of the examiner. The complete test is published in the authors’ book, Sentence Completi on: A Projective Method for the Study of Personality (Holsopple Miale, 1954; see also Potash, de Fileo Crespo, Patel, Ceravolo, 1990). The Sentence Completion Method (A. R. Rohde, 1946, 1957; B. R. Rohde, 1960), which is based on Murray’s theory of needs, was designed to uncover reactions and needs that lie deeper than those generally acknowledged by the individual. The instrument has 65 items, with no specific subscales. Scoring is based on Murray’s need states and environmental forces (press) with the inner integrates, inner states, and general states that are reproduced in A. R. Rohde’s (1957) book. Scoring examples and norms are reported for ninth-grade students. Interrater reliability was 95% on 36 protocols, and test–retest reliability ranged from . 76 to . 82. Concurrent validation using teacher ratings as the criterion yielded coefficients from . 30 to . 96. All stems and scoring procedures have been published in A. R. Rohde’s (1957) book The Sentence Completion Method. The Peck Sentence Completion (Peck, 1959) is based on psychodynamic theory and principles of free association, and its purpose is to measure the mental health of normal adults. Individuals age 40 or older were participants for a quantitative analysis. Responses to the 41 stems (called attitudes) were rated as positive, negative, or neutral, implying high or low levels of adjustment. A large number of â€Å"unhealthy† responses indicated maladjustment. Interrater agreement ranged from . 53 to . 86. Ten of the 41 statements correctly identified individuals as having high or low adjustment as judged by their responses on the Thematic Apperception Test and interviews. The article in which the Peck Sentence Completion test was reproduced included an interesting commentary about what it meant â€Å"to be a typical, normal American† (Peck, 1959, p. 253) in 1959. The Aronoff Sentence Completion (Aronoff, 1967) was developed to integrate sociology with Maslow’s theory of personality. Aronoff used this instrument to study the underlying needs of adults in a homogeneous cultural group that might have been influential in forming their sociocultural system. There are no norms and no subscales for the 33 sentence stems and the 13 projective questions. Responses are studied to understand how individual needs are related to the culture of a group within the framework of Maslow’s needs. No reliability or validity information is reported. All items and questions are reproduced with scoring examples in Aronoff’s (1967) book, Psychological Needs and Cultural Systems. The Personnel Reaction Blank (Gough, 1971) is based on a theory of antisocial behavior and was designed to measure integrity (character) for the purpose of selecting future employees to fill nonmanagerial positions. Appropriate for applicants over the age of 14, the Personnel Reaction Blank has 90 items, but only 42 are scored. Items are divided into two sections: work preferences and personal reactions. Hand-scoring keys are printed on each page of the test. Reported split-half SENTENCE COMPLETION TESTS 375 reliability is . 73, and test–retest reliability is . 56. Validity coefficients range from . 20 to . 57. The test can be ordered through Consulting Psychologists Press (1998). Loevinger’s Sentence Completion Test of Ego Development (Washington University Sentence Completion; Loevinger, 1987; Loevinger Wessler, 1970; Loevinger, Wessler, Redmore, 1970) is a 36-item test used to measure the level of ego development based on Loevinger’s theory of personality. It is appropriate for individuals ages 12 and older. Separate forms containing only minor differences are available for women and men. Each response is classified as Impulsive, Self-Protective, Conformist, Self-Aware, Conscientious, Individualistic, or Integrative (Hy Loevinger, 1996). Lord Of The Flies - What Evil Lurks In The H EssayThese off-balance, nonsequential probes are what make an open-ended SCT different from a structured (or even unstructured) interview, yet a fourth of the respondents said that one of the reasons they used an SCT was â€Å"as a substitute for a structured interview. † If that is the case, then the stems should represent a sampling of all the questions one would ask in a standard interview, except they would be randomly ordered. However, none of the 15 tests we reviewed contain all the questions usually included in a structured interview. Twenty-four respondents reported that they did not score SCTs administered to children, 27 said they did not score adolescents’ SCTs, and 26 said they did not score tests given to adults. Apparently examiners, relying on their own clinical skills, interpret the content of responses according to their own theoretical orientation. Over a period of years, examiners might become so familiar with typical responses from their client populations that unusual responses stand out. In other words, examiners become their own databases, and they informally establish local norms for their practice. For example, Margot Holaday, who worked with adolescents for 11 years, could argue strongly that the following benign response is highly unusual from 16-year-old males and warrants further examination: â€Å"I like †¦ my mom. † Examiners who rely on clinical skills instead of formal scoring to interpret SCTs should use the same SCT consistently with all clients rather than switching from one to another, so that unusual responses will stand out. The reasons why examiners use SCTs appear to be related to the way the test is administered; that is, whether the client or the therapist reads and writes responses. Practitioners who (a) want to observe behavior, handwriting, or written-language skills; (b) want to keep their client busy while scoring something else; or (c) are conducting research would gain more information if clients worked independently. Only tests completed by the client alone can be accurately scored. On the other hand, if the goal were to determine personality structure, to develop a therapy strategy, or to establish rapport, examiners would be more likely to read stems and record answers themselves. The interaction between the examiner and the examinee becomes another source of information. Practitioners also reported using SCTs to obtain quotable quotes that could lend support to diagnoses in psychological reports, to â€Å"find out what the client wants you to know,† and to discover â€Å"cognitive themes not revealed by other tests. † Many of the stems on the Incomplete Sentence Blank could provide direct information to corroborate diagnoses. For example, â€Å"I feel †¦ like crying† might be linked to depression, dysthymia, or adjustment disorders; â€Å"I regret †¦ nothing† could indicate denial, conduct disorder, or antisocial personality disorder; â€Å"At bedtime †¦ I have trouble sleeping† could reveal posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, anxiety, or insomnia. In other words, SCTs provide unique SENTENCE COMPLETION TESTS 381 information about clients that cannot be obtained by other tests because the open-ended questions permit a wider range of responses than other projective tests or paper-and-pencil personality tests. Limitations of the Study Although 60 members of the Society for Personality Assessment responded to the survey, a second mailing might have encouraged more people to return their questionnaires. We wish we had asked everyone who reported using tests not listed on the survey to send us a copy. People might be using old tests that had been copied and retyped so many times that the original author’s name had been forgotten. It is also possible that practitioners have devised their own tests that contain new stems that permit a wider understanding of client personalities. These new stems or prompts might yield important information that could be shared with other practitioners. Implications for Academic Instructors Students should be exposed to a wide variety of SCTs and should choose ones that comprise stems that are appropriate for their client’s developmental age, psychological functioning, and cultural milieu. Tests developed for college students should not be used with elementary school children or older clients who have been out of school for 30 years or more. In addition, SCTs should be theory based and should contribute substantially to diagnostic accuracy and treatment planning. For example, practitioners whose theoretical orientation is existential would probably gain much information if their SCT included stems that ask about thoughts and feelings about death. A cognitive behaviorist might be more interested in stems that explore clients’ attributional beliefs. A therapist working with minority or disenfranchised groups should include questions relevant to that group’s functioning within a majority society very different from their own. Most SCTs do not have stems asking about spirituality, eating habits, sexuality, illness, anxiety, addictions, prejudice, money, or employment, yet many clients have problems in these areas. Students should be taught how to develop additional items to be added to standard SCTs that are relevant to their practice. Using the same test developed by themselves for many years allows them to become their own databases. It also saves money, because they do not have to purchase copyrighted SCTs. Because most practitioners do not score their SCTs, it does not make sense to spend class time teaching scoring methods. SCTs apparently will remain popular with practitioners, because the tests provide so much information that is valuable for diagnoses, treatment planning, and report writing. Although the Incomplete Sentences Blank is the most popular test reported by members of the Society for Personality Assessment, it is not necessarily the best SCT for all clients. Practitioners may be better served by writing some of their own stems, reading them aloud to their clients, and recording the responses 382 HOLADAY, SMITH, SHERRY themselves. 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Margot Holaday Department of Psychology University of Southern Mississippi Box 5025 Hattiesburg, MS 39406–5025 Received March 4, 1999 Revised April 30, 1999